Fig. 1

Protective effects of TPP-Niacin against H₂O₂-induced cytotoxicity in ARPE-19 cells. a Chemical structure of TPP-Niacin. b RPE cells were treated with TPP-Niacin (25–400 μM) or 0.1% DMSO (vehicle control) for 24–72 h and the cell viabilities were measured using the CCK-8 assay. c Cells were treated with H₂O₂ (0.15–2.4 mM) for 24 h and cell viabilities were measured. Cells were pretreated with TPP-Niacin at indicated concentrations or 0.1% DMSO (vehicle control) for 2 h and then incubated with or without 300 μM H₂O₂ for a further 24 h. Cell viabilities and LDH release were measured by the CCK-8 assay (d) and LDH assay (e), respectively. ### P < 0.001 versus control group and **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001 versus the H₂O₂-treated group were considered statistically significant differences