Skip to main content
Download PDF

In vitro anti-plasmodial activity of three selected medicinal plants that are used in local traditional medicine in Amhara region of Ethiopia

BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology volume 24, Article number: 30 (2023) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

The plants Aloe weloensis, Lepidium sativum, and Lobelia gibberoa have been used in Ethiopian folklore medicine to treat various diseases including malaria.

Method

The in vitro anti-plasmodial activity of the three crude extracts was evaluated using parasite lactate dehydrogenase assay against the chloroquine (CQ)-sensitive D10 and the chloroquine (CQ)-resistant W2 strains.

Result

The methanolic extract of L. gibberoa roots showed the highest in vitro anti-plasmodial effect against both D10 and W2 Plasmodium falciparum strains with IC50 value of 103.83 ± 26.17 µg/mL and 47.11 ± 12.46 µg/mL, respectively. However, the methanolic extract of L. sativum seeds and the leaf latex of A. weloensis were not active with an IC50 value > 200 µg/mL against both D10 and W2 strains.

Conclusion

The methanolic extract of L. gibberoa roots showed a promising in vitro anti-plasmodial activity against the CQ-sensitive (D10) and CQ-resistant (W2) strains of P. falciparum. Thus, the anti-plasmodial activity of this plant partly justifies and may also support the traditional use against malaria. However, the methanolic extract of L. sativum seeds and the leaf latex of A. weloensis did not exert suppressive activity on the growth of P. falciparum strains.

Peer Review reports

Background

Malaria is one of the oldest recorded and major devastating and lethal parasitic diseases in the world [1]. It is a protozoal disease caused by parasites of the genus Plasmodium and transferred to humans by bites of certain species of infected female Anopheles mosquito [2]. Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale and P. malariae are the four human Plasmodium species transmitted from person to person. Recently, zoonotic transmissions with the monkey malaria parasites P. knowlesi are increasingly being reported from the forested regions of South-East Asia, particularly the island of Borneo [3]. P. falciparum and P. vivax malaria cause the greatest public health challenge [4]. From the five of human Plasmodium parasites, P. vivax and P. ovale form dormant stages in the liver (hypnozoites) that can cause a clinical relapse many months after the first event [5]. According to the World Health organization (WHO) latest estimates of 2022, about 247 million cases in 84 malaria endemic countries and 619 000 deaths of malaria occurred globally. The largest cases occurred in the African region (95%), followed by the South-East Asia region (2%), and the Eastern Mediterranean region (2%). The African region still carries an excessively high share of the global malaria burden 2022 [6]. Malaria remains an important cause of illness and death in children as well as adults (3). However, children under 5 are particularly vulnerable to infection, sickness, and death; more than two thirds (67%) of all malaria deaths occur in this age group [6]. It is still one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in some of the poorest tropical and subtropical regions. Particularly, it remains to be one of the most significant illnesses in sub-Saharan Africa, where 20% of children < 5 years old die as a result of this infection [7, 8]. Therefore, malaria control needs an integrated approach including prevention (mainly vector control) and prompt treatment with effective antimalarial agents [3]. Besides, malaria also causes a great economic impact with a total fund of an estimated US $ of 2.7 billion in 2018 for malaria control and elimination [6].

Nowadays, there is a problem of drug resistance of malaria parasites even to artemisinin, which is the main ingredient in most effective malaria treatment; Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT), puts at risk the gains that we have made to date to combat malaria, and may seriously jeopardize further progress in malaria control and elimination [9]. Besides, despite some promising efforts of malaria control through a vaccine, the success rate is still limited [7, 10]. Thus, the world is in urgent need of new anti-malarial drugs [11].

In discovering new anti-malarial drugs, history has taught us how the knowledge of traditional medicines is valuable [12,13,14]. Despite widespread development of resistance and difficulties in poor areas to afford as well as to access effective anti-malarial drugs, currently used and potent anti-malarial drugs such as artemisinin and quinine are obtained from plant sources. Hence, it is imperative to focus on traditionally used medicinal plants for the discovery of new anti-malarial sources for the future [8, 12].

It is predicted that over 1,200 plants worldwide are reported to possess anti-malarial activities [15]. The present experimental medicinal plants have a traditional claim for the treatment of malaria. In various countries of the world, different parts of L. sativum are believed to be an effective medicinal remedy. The seeds are used in treating dysentery and diarrhea [16], migraine [17], asthma, bronchitis cough [18], hypertension [19], rheumatic arthritis, muscular pain, bacterial and fungal infections, blood and skin disease, and tumors [20]. The seeds of L. sativum are aperient, diuretic, tonic, demulcent, carminative, galactagogue, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, poultice, and stimulant [21]. The seeds of this plant also possess rapid bone fracture healing ability [22]. They have been boiled with milk and are used to procure an abortion [23]. Fresh fruit is used for injuries, skin and eye disease. The leaves are antiscorbutic, diuretic, stimulant [21] and used for hepatic complaints [24]. Roots are bitter and acrid; it is useful in syphilis and tenesmus and used as a condiment [25]. According to the ethnobotanical studies conducted in different parts of Ethiopia, seeds of L. sativum are traditionally used for the treatment of malaria [26,27,28,29,30,31]. Crushed seeds are soaked in water, filtered and given orally in the morning for seven days for the treatment of malaria. L. sativum is known as Feto in Amharic A. weloensis is thought to be an effective medicinal remedy. It has been used for a long time in folk medicine for the treatment of constipation, burns, dermatitis, and wound [32]. Traditional healers of Ethiopia avowal the anti-malarial effect of A.weloensis in the Northern part of Ethiopia [33]. The leaf latex of A. weloensis is isolated and given orally to treat malaria. A. weloensis is known as Eret tafa in Amharic L. gibberoa is also thought to be an effective medicinal remedy. It has been used for the treatment of bronchitis asthma and chronic bronchitis. It has been also used topically for myositis and rheumatic nodules [34]. Traditional healers of Ethiopia claim the anti-malarial effect of L. gibberoa in different parts of Ethiopia [27, 30, 33]. Crushed roots are immersed in water, filtered and given orally for the treatment of malaria. L. gibberoa is known as Gibra in Amharic .This study was intended to evaluate the in vitro anti-malarial activity of these three plants since their in vitro anti-malarial activity has not been reported yet. In vitro tests of antimalarial have denoted some the most useful techniques for the study of the occurrence and changing pattern of drug resistance in the globe and have contributed essential evidence regarding a rationale management program based on the drug sensitivity patterns of the parasites. The resistance to antimalarials has stressed the necessity to identify and develop promising new antimalarials with different mechanisms of action to minimize the chance of cross-resistance with drugs which are in use nowadays. In vitro assay of drugs that are used to treat malaria have been widely used to support different studies associated to many phases of antimalarial drug investigation and development [35].

Pharmacological activities of selected plants

A number of pharmacological activities of L. sativum have been reported in literatures. These include antibacterial [36,37,38,39], antifungal [40,41,42], anti-inflammatory [43], antioxidant and anti-cancer [44], hepatoprotective [45], antidiabetic [46, 47], analgesic [48], and antihypertensive [24] activities. Aloe weloensis has been investigated for antibacterial [49] and in vivo antimalarial [50] activities. Lobelia gibberoa has been evaluated for antimalarial pharmacological activity [51]. Lobelia gibberoa related species have been investigated for many pharmacological activities. These activities include anti-cancer [52], antioxidant and anti-inflammatory [53], and antiviral [54] activities of Lobelia chinensis, anti-inflammatory activity of Lobelia laxiflora [55], analgesic and antivenom activity of Lobelia nicotianaefolia [56], anti-inflammatory and anticonvulsant activity of Lobelia flaccida [57], and antimicrobial activity of Lobelia pyramidalis [58].

Materials and methods

Drugs, chemicals, and materials

The chemicals that were used in this study includes: dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) (LobaChemie.Pvt.Ltd, India), 5% hematocrit (human type A-positive erythrocytes, Italy), RPMI (Roswell Park Memorial Institute) 1640 medium (EuroClone, Celbio), 1% AlbuMax (Invitrogen, Milan, Italy), 0.01% hypoxanthine, 20 mM HEPES, 2 mM glutamine, absolute methanol (ALPHA CHEMIKA, India), the standard drug Chloroquine. In addition, the following instruments and materials: grinder (Hi-speed Multifunctional Grinder, Shanghai Yuan WO Industrial and Trade Co.Ltd.Yongkang City), maceration jar, orbital shaker (Stuart, UK), vacuum pump (PoongilCommercial.Co. Ltd, Yongsan-Gu.Seoul, Korea), muslin cloth, Whatman filters paper No.1, collecting flask, drying oven (GENLAB WIDNES, England), refrigerator,light microscope (OPTIKA, ITALY), frosted microscopic slides, measuring cylinder, 96-well flat-bottomed microplates, incubator,and spectrophotometer were used to perform the study.

Plant materials collection and authentication

The seeds of L. sativum were purchased from Bahir Dar; the roots of L. gibberoa were collected from Delanta, and the leaf latex of A. weloensis from Woldia. The roots of L. gibberoa and the leaf latex of A. weloensis were collected after obtaining permission from the local administrative. Identification and authentication of the plants’ specimens was done by a taxonomist Getnet Chekole at the University of Gondar. After identification, voucher specimens of YW01/2011, YW02/2011, and YW03/2011 for L .sativum, L. gibberoa and A. weloensis respectively were deposited in Herbarium of University of Gondar for future reference. The roots of L. gibberoa and the leaf latex of A. weloensis were collected after getting permission from environmental protection office. Besides, the collected amount was very little that did not endanger the endemic plant species.

Plant extraction

The seeds of L. sativum were purchased and cleaned; the roots of L. gibberoa were collected and washed with tap water to remove dirt and soil. After that, they were air-dried at room temperature under a shade and reduced to an appropriate size by grinding with a grinder machine. The powdered plant materials were extracted by cold maceration with 80% methanol for three consecutive days at room temperature. A total of 600 gm dried seeds of L. sativum (1:5, w/v) and 340 gm dried roots of L. gibberoa (1:8, w/v) were extracted in separate maceration jars for 72 h. Extraction was facilitated by using an orbital shaker at 120 rpm. The mixtures were first filtered using a muslin cloth and then with Whatman filter paper No. 1- which was assisted by a vacuum pump. The residues were re-macerated for another 72 h twice and filtered. The combined filtrates were dried in a drying oven at a temperature of 400 C. The dried extracts were kept in a refrigerator at 4 °C until used [59]. The leaf latex of A. weloensis was collected by cutting the leaves transversally near the base and arranging them concentrically around a plate. The latex was then left in open shaded air for 3 days to allow evaporation of water [60].

In vitro anti-plasmodial activity of extracts

The parasite lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay was used to evaluate the in vitro anti-plasmodial activity of the crude extracts of the seeds of L. sativum and the roots of L. gibberoa as well as the leaf latex of A. weloensis against the CQ-sensitive (D10) and the CQ-resistant (W2) strains of P. falciparum. Plasmodium falciparum cultures were prepared according to the procedure described by Trager and Jensen, 1976 [61]. Both D10 and W2 strains were maintained at 5% hematocrit (human type A-positive erythrocytes) in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 1% AlbuMax, 0.01% hypoxanthine, 20 mM HEPES, and 2 mM glutamine. All the cultures were maintained at 37 °C in a standard gas mixture comprising 1% O2, 5% CO2, and 94% N2. Extracts were dissolved in DMSO (dimethyl sulphoxide) and then diluted with medium to get the required concentrations (final DMSO concentration was set to be < 1%, non-toxic to the parasite). Extracts were placed in 96-well flat-bottomed microplates and serial dilutions were made. Chloroquine was used as a standard drug. Synchronized cultures with a parasitemia of 1.5% and 1% final hematocrit were aliquoted into the plates and incubated for 72 h at 37 °C. Parasite growth inhibition was quantified spectrophotometrically by measuring the activity of the pLDH, according to a modified version of the method of Makler et al. [62] with slight modification [63]. The anti-plasmodial activity was expressed as 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50); each IC50 value is the mean ± standard deviation of at least three separate experiments performed in duplicate.

Data analysis

GraphPad Prism version 8 was used to compute the data obtained in this study and results were presented as Mean ± standard deviation (M ± SD). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) accompanied by Tukey’s honestly significance difference (HSD) post-hoc test was also carried out to compare mean of groups to each other. The analysis was performed with a 95% confidence interval and the significance was set at p < 0.05.

Results

Percentage yield

The percentage yield was determined for each plant using the method as follows:

Percentage yield = (Weight of extract/Weight of ground material) X 100.

After drying, a dry yellowish extract from L. sativum with 13.8% w/w yield and a gummy reddish extract from L. gibberoa with 14.4% w/w yield were obtained. A dark brown powder with 16.4% w/w yield was obtained from the leaf latex of A. weloensis which is the highest yield from all the three plants (Table 1).

Table 1 Percentage yield of crude extracts of Lepidiumsativum, Lobelia gibberoa, and Aloe weloensis
Full size table

In vitro anti-plasmodial activity

The anti-plasmodial activity of the tested medicinal plants’ extracts against the CQ-sensitive D10 and CQ-resistant W2 strains of P. falciparum is presented in Fig. 1and Fig. 2, respectively. The methanolic extract of L.gibberoa roots caused a concentration-dependent growth inhibition against both strains of P. falciparum. Among the three extracts, the methanolic extract of L. gibberoa roots showed the highest in vitro anti-plasmodial effect against both D10 and W2 P. falciparum strains. The half-inhibitory concentration (IC50 values) of the selected plants extracts is presented in Table 2. The methanolic extract of L. gibberoa roots showed the lowest IC50 value when compared with the other extracts against both the CQ-sensitive P. falciparum D10 strain (IC50 = 103.83 ± 26.17 µg/mL) and CQ-resistant P.falciparum W2 strain (IC50 = 47.11 ± 12.46 µg/mL). However, the methanolic extract of L. sativum seeds and the leaf latex of A. weloensis were not active with an IC50 value > 200 µg/mL against both D10 and W2 strains (Table 2).

Fig. 1
figure 1

a: Plot of percentage growth of the CQ-sensitive P. falciparum D10 strain versus concentration of the plant extracts. The error bars indicates the SD of the triplicate results from a representative experiment out of three; AW, leaf latex ofA. weloensis; LS, methanolic extract of L.sativum seeds. b: Plot of percentage growth of the CQ-sensitive P. falciparum D10 strain versus concentration of the plant extracts. The error bars indicates the SD of the triplicate results from a representative experiment out of three; LG, methanolic extract of L.gibberoa roots

Full size image
Fig. 2
figure 2

a: Plot of percentage growth of the CQ-sensitive P. falciparum W2 strain versus concentration of the plant extracts. The error bars indicates the SD of the triplicate results from a representative experiment out of three; AW, leaf latex of A. weloensis; LS, methanolic extract of L .sativum seeds. b: Plot of percentage growth of the CQ-sensitive P. falciparum W2 strain versus concentration of the plant extracts. The error bars indicates the SD of the triplicate results from a representative experiment out of three; LG, methanolic extract of L. gibberoa roots

Full size image
Table 2 In vitro anti-plasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum strains, D10 (CQ-sensitive) and W2 (CQ-resistant)
Full size table

Discussion

In the present study, the in vitro anti-plasmodial activity of the methanolic extracts of L. gibberoa roots and L. sativum seeds, as well as the leaf latex of A. weloensis were investigated. In discovering new anti-malarial drugs, history has taught us how the knowledge of traditional medicines is valuable [12,13,14]. The in vitro anti-plasmodial effect of three medicinal plants’ extracts was screened against a CQ-sensitive D10 and CQ-resistant W2 strains.

Among the three selected plants used for the traditional treatment of malaria in Ethiopia, the methanolic extract of L. gibberoa roots exhibited a moderate in vitro anti-plasmodial activity against asexual forms of P. falciparum whereas the methanolic extract of L. sativum seeds and the leaf latex of A.weloensis were inactive. The methanolic extract of L. gibberoa roots showed the lowest IC50 value against both strains of P. falciparum used. In one study, the in vivo antimalarial activity of the 80% methanolic extract of L. gibberoa (400 mg/kg), methanol fraction (400 mg/kg), and lobetyolin isolate (100 mg/kg) was evaluated and they exhibited antimalarial activity with chemosuppression values of 73.05, 64.37, and 68.21%, respectively [51]. This result supports the in vitro antimalarial activity and the traditional use of the plant for the treatment of malaria.

Various studies on the antimalarial activity of the genus Aloe have been reported. In one study, ether leaves extracts of A. dawei showed a potential inhibition of parasite growth against P. falciparum with the IC50 value of 7.965 µg/mL [64]. Similarly, Aloe perryi has been studied for its in vitro anti-plasmodial activity and the result supports the use of the plant leaves latex in the treatment of malaria with the IC50 value of 60.60 µg/mL [65]. In vitro anti-plasmodial activity test of aqueous leaf extract and isolated compounds of A .vera collected from different climatic regions in India has been conducted. Different chemosuppressive effect of samples collected from different climatic area has been observed with EC50 values ranging from 0.289 to 1056 μg/mL [66]. Similarly, the anti-malarial activity of the leaf latex of A. citrina and the leaf latex of A. megalacantha showed a significant dose-dependent chemo-suppression activity against P. berghei in Swiss albino mice with the highest parasitemia suppression of 60.59% [67] and 79.6% [68], respectively at the higher dose tested (400 mg/kg). Other studies on the leaf latex of A. percrassa and A. macrocarp showed a significant dose-dependent chemo-suppression activity against P. berghei in Swiss albino mice with the highest parasitemia suppression of 73.6% [60] and 74.3% [69], respectively at the higher dose tested (400 mg/kg). In one study, the in vivo antimalarial activity of the leaf latex of A. weloensis was evaluated and results showed that the plant has a significant dose-dependent chemo-suppression activity against P. berghei in Swiss albino mice with the highest parasitemia suppression of 66.4% [50]. Conversely, in the present study, the leaf latex of A. weloensis was inactive (IC50>200 µg/mL). This might be that the leaf latex of A. weloensis might have inactive molecules that need biological transformation (metabolism) into active molecules. These types of drugs are known as reactionary drugs or pro-drugs.

There are limited studies on the anti-malarial activity of Lepidium genus. In one study, the in vitro anti-malarial activity of Lepidium virginicum has been conducted and results showed that this extract was inactive [70]. Similarly, in the present study, the methanolic extract of L. sativum seeds was inactive (IC50 > 200 µg/mL). The methanolic extract of L. sativum seeds might have inactive molecules that need biological transformation (metabolism) into active molecules. Thus, studying the in vivo anti-malarial property of this plant extract is necessary.

Phytochemicals or secondary metabolites (anthraquinones, flavonoids, phenols, terpenoids, tannins, glycosides and others) showed antimalarial activity in different plants extracts through various mechanism of action [71,72,73,74]. Moreover, flavonoids which have antioxidant activity may also contribute to the antimalarial activity. Antioxidant compounds can inhibit hemozoin formation, and free heme is very toxic for malaria parasite [75]. In addition, secondary metabolites such as glycosides have been shown to possess direct antiplasmodial effects [76]. Therefore, the antimalarial activity of plants could be elicited from single or synergetic action of these metabolites.

Conclusion

The methanolic extract of Lobelia gibberoa roots showed a promising in vitro anti-plasmodial activity against P. falciparum. Thus, this study partly justifies and may also support the traditional use against malaria. However, the methanolic extract of L sativum seeds and the leaf latex of A. weloensis did not exert in vitro suppressive activity on the growth of P. falciparum strains. The methanolic extract of Lepidium sativum seeds may also be examined for its in vivo anti-malarial activity to determine if there is/are reactionary drug/s that needs biological transformation to act.

Data Availability

The data used and analyzed in this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

ACT:

Artemisinin-based Combination Therapy

ANOVA:

Analysis of Variance

CDC:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CQ:

Chloroquine

DMSO:

Dimethyl Sulfoxide

HSD:

Honestly Significance Difference

IC50 :

Half inhibitory amount of a substance

pLDH:

Parasite Lactate dehydrogenase

RPMI:

Roswell Park Memorial Institute

WHO:

World Health Organization

References

  1. Dharani N, Rukunga G, Yenesew A, Mbora A, Mwaura L, Dawson et al. Common anti-malarial trees and shrubs of East Africa. A description of species and a guide to cultivation and conservation through use. 1st ed. Nairobi, Kenya; 2010:73–76.

  2. Kalra BS, Chawla S, Gupta P, Valencha N. Screening of antimalarial drugs: an overview. Indian J Pharmacol. 2006;38(1):5–12.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria-3. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  4. World Health Organization. Malaria report 2017. Geneva, Switzerland. World Health Organization; 2017.

  5. World Health Organization. Malaria report 2014. Geneva, Switzerland. World Health Organization; 2014.

  6. World Health Organization. Malaria report 2022. Geneva, Switzerland. World Health Organization; 2022.

  7. Centers for disease control and prevention, center for global health, division of parasitic diseases and malaria. CDC’s Malaria Research. USA; 2014. www.cdc.gov/malaria.

  8. Tesfaye WH, Alamneh EA. In vivo anti-malarial activity of the crude extract and solvent fractions of the leaves of Zehenria scabra (Cucurbitaceae) against Plasmodium berghei in mice. J Med Plant Res. 2014;8(42):1230–6.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Consensus on malaria control and elimination in the Asia-pacific. Austrial AID. 2012. [Cited in 2018 October 5]. Available from: http://www.malaria 2012 conference.com.

  10. Magill AJ. Hunter’s tropical medicine and emerging infectious disease, expert consult-online and print. Elsevier Heal Sci. 2013;696–716.

  11. World Health Organization. Global report on anti-malarial drug efficacy and drug resistance. Geneva, Switzerland. 2012:2000–2010.

  12. Willcox ML, Bodeker G. Traditional herbal medicines for malaria. Br Med Journal. 2004;329(7475):1156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Liu H, Tian X, Zhang Y, Wang C, Jiang H. The discovery of Artemisia annua L. in the Shengjindian cemetery, Xinjiang, China and its implications for early uses of traditional chinese herbal medicine qinghao. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146(1):278–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Adams M, Alther W, Kessler M, Kluge M, Hamburger M. Malaria in the renaissance: remedies from european herbals from the 16th and 17th centuries. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133(2):278–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Amuamuta A, Na-bangchang K. A review of ethnopharmacology of the commonly used anti-malarial herbal agents for traditional medicine practice in Ethiopia. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2015;9(25):615–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Al-Marzoqi AH, Sahi N, Hussein HJ. In vitro antibacterial activity assessment of the crude phenolic, alkaloid and terpenoid compounds extracts of Lepidium sativum L. on human pathogenic bacteria. Int J Chemtech Res. 2016;9(4):529–32.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Merzouki A, Ed-derfoufi F, Mesa JM, Merzouki A, Ed-Derfoufi F, Mesa JM. Contribution to the knowledge of Rifian traditional medicine II: Folk medicine in Ksar Lakbir district (NW Morocco). Fitoterapia. 2000;71(3):278–307.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Rehman NU, Khan AU, Alkharfy KM, Gilani AH. Pharmacological basis for the medicinal use of Lepidium sativum in airways disorders. Evidence-based Complement Altern Med. 2012:8.

  19. Radwan HM, El-Missiry MM, Al-Said WM, Ismail AS, Seif-El-Nasr MM, Abdel Shafeek KA. Investigation of the glucosinolates of Lepidium Sativum growing in Egypt and their biological activity. Res J Med Med Sci. 2007;2(2):127–32.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Gupta PC, Pant D, Joshi P, Lohar RD. Evaluation of the antibacterial activity of Lepidium sativum Linn. Seeds against food-borne pathogens. Int J Chem Anal Sci. 2010;1(4):74–5.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Eddouks M, Maghrani M, Zeggwagh NA, Michel JB. Study of the hypoglycaemic activity of Lepidium sativum L. aqueous extract in normal and diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97(2):391–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. AL-Yahya MA, Mossa JS, Ageel AM, Rafatullah S. Pharmacological and safety evaluation studies on Lepidium sativum L. seeds. Phytomedicine. 1994;1:155–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Mukhopadhyay D, Parihar SS, Chauhan JS, Preeti, Joshi SC. Effect of temperature and desiccation on seed viability of Lepidium sativum L. New York Sci J. 2010;3(5):34–6.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Maghrani M, Zeggwagh NA, Michel JB, Eddouks M. Antihypertensive effect of Lepidium sativum L. in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;100(2):193–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Uphof JC. Dictionary of economic plants. 1959.

  26. Ragunathan M, Abay MS. Ethnomedicinal survey of folk drugs used in Bahirdar zuria district, Northwestern Ethiopia. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8(2):281–4.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Meragiaw M, Asfaw Z. Review of anti-malarial, pesticidal and repellent plants in Ethiopian traditional herbal medicine. Res Rev J Herb Sci. 2014;3(3):21–45.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Mesfin F, Seta T, Assefa A. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Amaro Woreda, Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:341–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Enyew A, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E, Nagappan R. Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants in and around Fiche district, central Ethiopia. Curr Res J Biol Sci. 2014;6(4):154–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Suleman S, Tufa TB, Kebede D, Belew S, Mekonnen Y, Gashe, et al. Treatment of malaria and related symptoms using traditional herbal medicine in Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;213:262–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Berhan A, Asfaw Z, Kelbessa E. Ethnobotany of plants used as insecticides, repellents and anti-malarial agents in Jabitehnan district, West Gojjam. Ethiop J Sci. 2006;29(1):87–92.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Grace OM, Simmonds MS, Smith GF, Van Wyk AE. Documented utility and biocultural value of Aloe L. (Asphodelaceae): a review. Econ Bot. 2009;63(2):167–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Chekole G. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used against human ailments in Gubalafto. J Ethnobiol ethnomedicine. 2017;13(1):55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Ebadi M, Shields KM. Book review: Pharmacodynamic basis of herbal medicine. 2nd ed. 2007.

  35. George E, Childs, Kyle Webster H. In Vitro Assay Of Antimalarials: Technologies, Applications, and Prospects. Southeast Asian J TROP Men Pub Hlth. 1986; 17(4).

  36. Watt JM, Breyer-Brandwijk MG. The medicinal and poisonous plants of Southern and Eastern Africa being an account of their medicinal and other uses, chemical composition, pharmacological effects and toxicology in man and animal. 1962.

  37. Arroyo-Leuenberger S, Bayer MB, Bogner J, Eggli U, Forster PI, Hunt et al. Illustrated handbook of succulent plants: monocotyledons. Springer Sci Bus Media. 2001:102–37.

  38. Dessalegn F. Study on the populations of an endemic Aloe species (A. gilbertii Reynolds) in Ethiopia. Eng Sci Technol An Int J. 2013;3(3):562–76.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Dorling K. RHS AZ Encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingd. 2008:1136.

  40. Bhasin P, Bansal D, Punia A, Sehrawat RA. Antimicrobial activities of Lepidium sativum: a medicinal plant used in folklore remedies in India. J Pharm Res. 2012;5(3):1643–5.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Besufekad Y, Beri S, Adugnaw T, Beyene K. Antibacterial activity of Ethiopian Lepidium sativum L. against pathogenic bacteria. J Med Plants Res. 2018;12(6):64–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Adam YI, Salih MA, Abdelgadir SW. In vitro antimicrobial assessment of Lepidium sativum L. seeds extracts. Asian J Med Sci. 2011;3(6):261–6.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Raval DN, Ravishankar B, Ashok BK. Anti-inflammatory effect of chandrashura (Lepidium sativum Linn.) An experimental study. Int Q J Res Ayurveda. 2013;34(3):302–4.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Selek S, Koyuncu I, Caglar HG, Bektas I, Yilmaz MA, Gonel, et al. The evaluation of antioxidant and anticancer effects of Lepidium Sativum Subsp Spinescens L. methanol extract on cancer cells. Cell Mol Biol. 2018;64(3):72–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Al-Asmari AK, Athar MT, Al-Shahrani HM, Al-Dakheel SI, Al-Ghamdi MA. Efficacy of Lepidium sativum against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity and determination of its bioactive compounds by. GC-MS Toxicol Rep. 2015;2:1319–26.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Malar JS, Vanmathi SJ, Chairman K. Antidiabetic activity of different parts of the plant Lepidiumsativum Linn. Asian J Appl Sci Technol. 2017;1(9):135–41.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Kamani M, Mhabadi AJ, Atlasi AM, Seyedi F, Kamani E, Nikzad H. Protective effect of alcoholic extract of Garden cress seeds on the histopathological changes of the ventral prostate in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Int J Morphol. 2017;35(3):1178–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Raval DN, Ravishankar B. Analgesic effect of Lepidium sativum Linn. (Chandrashura) in experimental animals. Int Q J Res Ayurveda. 2010;31(3):371–3.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Emiru YK, Siraj EA, Teklehaimanot TT, Amare GG. Antibacterial potential of Aloe weloensis (Aloeaceae) leaf latex against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria Strains. Int J Microbiol. 2019.

  50. Amare GG, Awgichew T, Ahmed S, Kifle DZ. Evaluation of in vitro antioxidant and in vivo antiplasmodial activity of the leaf latex of Aloe Weloensis (Aloaceae). Research square. 2020.

  51. Tadege G, Alebachew Y, Hymete A, Tadesse S. Dentification of lobetyolin as a major antimalarial constituent of the roots of Lobelia giberroa Hemsl. Int J Parasitology: Drugs Drug Resist. 2022;18:43–51.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Chen MW, Chen WR, Zhang JM, Long XY, Wang YT. Lobelia chinensis chemical constituents and anticancer activity perspective. Chin J Nat Med. 2014;12(2):103–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Li KC, Ho YL, Huang GJ, Chang YS. Anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects of Lobelia chinensis in vitro and in vivo. Am J Chin Med. 2015;43(2):269–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Kuo YC, Lee YC, Leu YL, Tsai WJ, Chang SC. Efficacy of orally administered Lobelia chinensis extracts on herpes simplex virus type 1 infection in BALB/c mice. Antiviral Res. 2008;80(2):206–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Philipov S, Istatkova R, Ivanovska N, Denkova P, Tosheva K, Navas, et al. Phytochemical study and antiinflammatory properties of Lobelia laxiflora L. J Biosci. 1998;53(6):311–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Vigneshwaran V, Somegowda M, Pramod NS. Pharmacological evaluation of analgesic and antivenom potential from the leaves of Folk medicinal plant Lobelia nicotianaefolia. Am J Phytomedicine Clin Ther. 2014;2(12):1404–15.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Stolom S, Oyemitan AI, Matewu R, Oyedeji OO, Oluwafemi OS, Nkeh-Chungag, et al. Chemical and biological studies of Lobelia flaccida (C. Presl) A.DC leaf: a medicinal plant used by traditional healers in Eastern Cape, South Africa. Trop J Pharm Res. 2016;15(8):1715–21.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Joshia S, Mishrab D, Bishta G, Khetwala SK. Essential oil composition and antimicrobial activity of Lobelia pyramidalis wall. EXCLI J. 2011;10:274–9.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Bantie L, Assefa S, Teklehaimanot T, Engidawork E. In vivo anti-malarial activity of the crude leaf extract and solvent fractions of Croton macrostachyus Hocsht. (Euphorbiaceae) against Plasmodium berghei in mice. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014;14:79.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Geremedhin G, Bisrat D, Asres K. Isolation, characterization and in vivo anti-malarial evaluation of anthrones from the leaf latex of Aloe percrassa Todaro. J Nat Remedies. 2014;14(2):119–25.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Trager W, Jensen JB. Human malaria parasites in continuous culture. Science. 1976;193:673–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Makler MT, Ries JM, Williams JA, Bancroft JE, Piper RC, Gibbins, et al. Parasite lactate dehydrogenase as an assay for Plasmodium falciparum drug sensitivity. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1993;48(6):739–41. 53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Basilico N, Migotto M, Ilboudo DP, Taramelli D, Stradi R, Pini E. Modified quaternary ammonium salts as potential anti-malarial agents. Bioorg Med Chem. 2015;23(15):4681–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Bbosa GS, Kyegombe DB, Lubega A, Musisi N, Ogwal-Okeng J, Odyek O. Anti-Plasmodium falciparum activity of Aloe dawei and Justicia betonica. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2013;7(31):2258–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Mothana RA, Al-Musayeib NM, Matheeussen A, Cos P, Maes L. Assessment of the in vitro anti-protozoal and cytotoxic potential of 20 selected medicinal plants from the island of Soqotra. Molecules. 2012;17(12):14349–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Kumar S, Yadav M, Yadav A, Rohilla P, Yadav JP. Anti-plasmodial potential and quantification of aloin and aloe-emodin in Aloe vera collected from different climatic regions of India. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2017;17(1):369.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Girma B, Bisrat D, Asres K. Anti-malarial evaluation of the leaf latex of Aloe citrina and its major constituent. Anc Sci Life. 2015;34(3):142–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Hintsa G, Sibhat GG, Karim A. Evaluation of anti-malarial activity of the leaf latex and TLC isolates from Aloe megalacantha Baker in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Evidence-Based Complement Altern Med. 2019:1–9.

  69. Tewabe Y, Assefa S. Anti-malarial potential of the leaf exudate of Aloe macrocarpa Todaro and its major constituents against Plasmodium berghei. J Clin Exp Pharmacol. 2018;8(1).

  70. Valdes AF, Martinez JM, Lizama RS, Gaiten YG, Rodriguez DA, Payrol JA. In vitro anti-malarial activity and cytotoxicity of some selected cuban medicinal plants. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2010;52(4):197–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Bekono BD, Ntie-Kang F, Onguéné PA, Lifongo LL, Sippl W, Fester K, et al. The potential of antimalarial compounds derived from african medicinal plants: a review of pharmacological evaluations from 2013 to 2019. Malar J. 2020;19:1–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Attemene SDD, Beourou S, Tuo K, Gnondjui AA, Konate A, Toure AO, et al. Antiplasmodial activity of two medicinal plants against clinical isolates of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium berghei infected mice. J parasitic Dis. 2018;42(1):68–76. 23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Desye M, Ephrem E, Teshome N. Evaluation of the anti-malarial activity of crude extract and solvent fractions of the leaves of Olea europaea (Oleaceae) in mice. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019;19:171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Satish P, Sunita K. Antimalarial efficacy of Pongamia pinnata (L) Pierre against Plasmodium falciparum (3D7 strain) and Plasmodium berghei (ANKA). BMC Complement Altern Med Page. 2017;17/19(1):458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Somsak V, Borkaew P, Klubsri C, Dondee K, Bootprom P, Saiphet B. Antimalarial properties of aqueous crude extracts of Gynostemma pentaphyllum and Moringa oleifera leaves in combination with artesunate in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice. J Trop Med. 2016.

  76. Boampong NJ, Ameyaw E, Kyei S. In vivo antimalarial activity of stem bark extracts of Plumeria alba against Plasmodium berghei in imprinting control region mice. Rep Parasitol. 2013;3:19–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Wollo University for funding this work.

Funding

This work was funded by Wollo University.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmacy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Wollo University, P.O.Box: 1145, Dessie, Ethiopia

    Yenesew Wudu Ejigu & Bedilu Linger Endalifer

  2. Department of Pharmacy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia

    Yenesew Wudu Ejigu

Authors
  1. Yenesew Wudu Ejigu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Bedilu Linger Endalifer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

YW collected and extracted the experimental plants, conducted the in vitro anti-malarial evaluation on P. falciparum. BL wrote the proposal, analyzed the results, and wrote the manuscript. Both the authors read and approved the final manuscript, and agreed to be accountable with regard to this work.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yenesew Wudu Ejigu.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The author declares that there is no competing interest.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The study was commenced after ethical clearance was secured from the Health Research Ethics and Review Committee, College of Health Science, Wollo University with protocol number (ERC1547/2018).

Plant collection and Authentication

Identification and authentication of the plants’ specimens was done by a taxonomist Getnet Chekole at the University of Gondar and it was in line with characteristics that is published in the monograph.

Method of plant collection

All methods of plant collection complied with a guideline developed in America by the Plant Conservation Roundtable,Washington,D.C., Adopted June 18, 1986. This guideline is known as BOTANY 440/540.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Ethical clearance

The study was commenced after ethical clearance was secured from the Health Research Ethics and Review Committee, College of Health Science, Wollo University with protocol number (ERC1547/2018).

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ejigu, Y.W., Endalifer, B.L. In vitro anti-plasmodial activity of three selected medicinal plants that are used in local traditional medicine in Amhara region of Ethiopia. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 24, 30 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40360-023-00672-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40360-023-00672-z

Keywords

BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology

ISSN: 2050-6511

Contact us